Main Article Content
Abstract
This study analyzed the differences in gross motor skills in children aged 7-9 years in urban and rural areas and the influence of socioeconomic conditions on them. The study involved 100 children evenly divided between the two areas, with measurements using the AMC-2 instrument. The results showed significant differences in gross motor skills between urban (M=138.8) and rural (M=127.9) children with p=0.003. Urban children performed better in locomotor (70.3 vs 65.2) and object control (68.5 vs 62.7). Multiple regression analysis confirmed that both socioeconomic conditions (B=0.45, p=0.004) and residential area (B=0.39, p=0.008) had a significant effect on gross motor skills. These findings indicate the importance of considering environmental and socioeconomic factors in the development of children's gross motor skills.
Keywords
Article Details
Copyright (c) 2024 Imam Hariadi, Mashuri Eko Winarno, Nurrul Riyad Fadhli, Dona Sandy Yudasmara; Taufik, Galih Purnomo Aji

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.
Authors who publish in this journal agree with the following terms:- Authors retain copyright and grant the journal right of first publication with the work simultaneously licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 (CC BY-SA) that allows others to share the work with an acknowledgement of the work's authorship and initial publication in this journal.
- Authors are able to enter into separate, additional contractual arrangements for the non-exclusive distribution of the journal's published version of the work (e.g., post it to an institutional repository or publish it in a book), with an acknowledgement of its initial publication in this journal.
- Authors are permitted and encouraged to post their work online (e.g., in institutional repositories or on their website) prior to and during the submission process, as it can lead to productive exchanges, as well as earlier and greater citation of published work (See The Effect of Open Access).
- This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.
References
- Adkins, M. M., Bice, M. R., Dinkel, D., & Rech, J. P. (2017a). Leveling the Playing Field: Assessment of Gross Motor Skills in Low Socioeconomic Children to their Higher Socioeconomic Counterparts. International Journal of Kinesiology and Sports Science, 5(3), 28. https://doi.org/10.7575/aiac.ijkss.v.5n.3p.28
- Adkins, M. M., Bice, M. R., Dinkel, D., & Rech, J. P. (2017b). Leveling the Playing Field: Assessment of Gross Motor Skills in Low Socioeconomic Children to their Higher Socioeconomic Counterparts. International Journal of Kinesiology and Sports Science, 5(3), 28. https://doi.org/10.7575/aiac.ijkss.v.5n.3p.28
- Adolph, K. E., & Hoch, J. E. (2020). The Importance of Motor Skills for Development (pp. 136–144). https://doi.org/10.1159/000511511
- Agafonov, S., Chub, S., & Trufanova, S. (2021). Actual Problems Of Physical Development Of Children In The Age Of Digital Technologies. E3S Web of Conferences, 273, 09034. https://doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202127309034
- Akpınar, A., & Cankurt, M. (2015). Parental influence on children’s physical activity in urban green spaces. İstanbul Üniversitesi Orman Fakültesi Dergisi, 66(2). https://doi.org/10.17099/jffiu.38834
- Andli Marta, I., Oktarifaldi, O., Hachi, I., Wisma, N., Rosalina, V., S, W., Nopembri, S., Erhan Orhan, B., Kurnaz, M., & Bin Shahril, M. I. (2024). Characteristics Of Gross Motor Skills Of Elementary School Students Aged 7 And 8 Years: A Cross-Sectional Study. Retos, 59, 537–546. https://doi.org/10.47197/retos.v59.107293
- Asyura, I., Supriadi, I., Jannah, R., Maarif, M., Linda, L., Munawar, B., & Kamali, A. S. (2023). Pelatihan Permainan Tradisional Sunda Manda Sebagai Media Etnomatematika Dan Motorik AUD. JURNAL PENGABDIAN KEPADA MASYARAKAT, 78–85. https://doi.org/10.30999/jpkm.v13i3.2840
- Ball, K., Jeffery, R. W., Crawford, D. A., Roberts, R. J., Salmon, J., & Timperio, A. F. (2008). Mismatch between perceived and objective measures of physical activity environments. Preventive Medicine, 47(3), 294–298. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ypmed.2008.05.001
- Barnett, L., Hinkley, T., Okely, A. D., & Salmon, J. (2013). Child, family and environmental correlates of children’s motor skill proficiency. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, 16(4). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsams.2012.08.011
- Haywood, K., & Getchell, N. (2024). Life Span Motor Development. Human Kinetics.
- Ishee, J. H., & Hoffman, J. (2003a). The Influence of Motor Skill Interventions on Disadvantaged Children. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance, 74(8), 14–14. https://doi.org/10.1080/07303084.2003.10608494
- Ishee, J. H., & Hoffman, J. (2003b). The Influence of Motor Skill Interventions on Disadvantaged Children. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance, 74(8), 14–14. https://doi.org/10.1080/07303084.2003.10608494
- Jacqueline D. Goodway, John C. Ozmun, and D. L. G. (2017). Motor Development in Young Children. Handbook of research on the education of young children.
- Jiménez-Pavón, D., Fernández-Alvira, J. M., te Velde, S. J., Brug, J., Bere, E., Jan, N., Kovacs, E., Androutsos, O., Manios, Y., De Bourdeaudhuij, I., & Moreno, L. A. (2012). Associations of parental education and parental physical activity (PA) with children’s PA: The ENERGY cross‐sectional study. Preventive Medicine, 55(4), 310–314. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ypmed.2012.07.011
- Kellstedt, D. K., Schenkelberg, M. A., Essay, A. M., Von Seggern, M. J., Rosenkranz, R. R., Welk, G. J., High, R., & Dzewaltowski, D. A. (2021). Youth Sport Participation And Physical Activity In Rural Communities. Archives of Public Health, 79(1), 46. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13690-021-00570-y
- Klein, M., Fröhlich, M., Pieter, A., & Emrich, E. (2016). Socio-economic status and motor performance of children and adolescents. European Journal of Sport Science, 16(2), 229–236. https://doi.org/10.1080/17461391.2014.1001876
- Kwon, S., & O’Neill, M. (2020). Socioeconomic and Familial Factors Associated with Gross Motor Skills among US Children Aged 3–5 Years: The 2012 NHANES National Youth Fitness Survey. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(12), 4491. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17124491
- Laguna Celia, A., Ornelas Contreras, M., González Rivas, R. A., & Nuñez Enriquez, O. (2023). Impacto del nivel socioeconómico en habilidades motrices de infantes: revisión sistemática (Impact of the socioeconomic status in children motor abilities: systematic review). Retos, 49, 307–313. https://doi.org/10.47197/retos.v49.97531
- Leonard, H. C. (2016). The Impact of Poor Motor Skills on Perceptual, Social and Cognitive Development: The Case of Developmental Coordination Disorder. Frontiers in Psychology, 7. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00311
- Li, S., Sun, J., & Dong, J. (2022). Family Socio-Economic Status and Children’s Play Behaviors: The Mediating Role of Home Environment. Children, 9(9), 1385. https://doi.org/10.3390/children9091385
- Maddison, R., Hoorn, S., Jiang, Y., Mhurchu, C., Exeter, D., Dorey, E., Bullen, C., Utter, J., Schaaf, D., & Turley, M. (2009). The Environment And Physical Activity: The Influence Of Psychosocial, Perceived And Built Environmental Factors. International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 6(1), 19. https://doi.org/10.1186/1479-5868-6-19
- Malina, R. M., Bouchard, C., & Bar-Or, O. (2004). Growth, Maturation, and Physical Activity. Human Kinetics. https://doi.org/10.5040/9781492596837
- Mota, J., Santos, R., Pereira, M., Teixeira, L., & Santos, M. P. (2011). Perceived Neighbourhood Environmental Characteristics And Physical Activity According To Socioeconomic Status In Adolescent Girls. Annals of Human Biology, 38(1), 1–6. https://doi.org/10.3109/03014460.2010.486769
- Ms Sumandeep Kaur, & Kaur Randhawa, D. R. (2022). Socioeconomic Status of Family And Availability of Home Affordances for Motor Development. International Journal of Life Science and Pharma Research. https://doi.org/10.22376/ijpbs/lpr.2022.12.1.L214-220
- Muhammad nasihul waffak, Ervin Arifianti, & Rini Agustiningsih. (2024). Development of an Outdoor Play-Based Learning Model to Train Gross Motor Skills in Early Childhood. Kinestetik : Jurnal Ilmiah Pendidikan Jasmani, 8(2), 275–281. https://doi.org/10.33369/jk.v8i2.34338
- Newell, K. M. (1986). Constraints on the Development of Coordination. In Motor Development in Children: Aspects of Coordination and Control (pp. 341–360). Springer Netherlands. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-009-4460-2_19
- Pate, R. R., & O’Neill, J. R. (2012). Physical Activity Guidelines for Young Children. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine, 166(12), 1095. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpediatrics.2012.1458
- Prins, R. G., Oenema, A., van der Horst, K., & Brug, J. (2009). Objective and perceived availability of physical activity opportunities: differences in associations with physical activity behavior among urban adolescents. International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 6(1), 70. https://doi.org/10.1186/1479-5868-6-70
- Robinson, L. E., Stodden, D. F., Barnett, L. M., Lopes, V. P., Logan, S. W., Rodrigues, L. P., & D’Hondt, E. (2015). Motor Competence and its Effect on Positive Developmental Trajectories of Health. Sports Medicine, 45(9), 1273–1284. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-015-0351-6
- Rocha Neto, L. J. da, Alvim Costa, M. I., Bragança Barros, I. de C. S., Bolina Batista, F. R. G., & Mandacaru, G. P. (2023). Prolonged use of Screens in Children and their Harm. Global Journal of Medical Research, 49–50. https://doi.org/10.34257/GJMRKVOL23IS6PG49
- Ruijsbroek, A., Wijga, A. H., Kerkhof, M., Koppelman, G. H., Smit, H. A., & Droomers, M. (2011). The development of socio-economic health differences in childhood: results of the Dutch longitudinal PIAMA birth cohort. BMC Public Health, 11(1), 225. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-11-225
- Saldan, I. P., Pashkov, A. P., & Zhukova, O. V. (2019). Comparative Analysis Of The Physical Development Of Schoolchildren Of 7-10 Years In Urban And Rural Areas. Hygiene and Sanitation, 98(3), 308–313. https://doi.org/10.18821/0016-9900-2019-98-3-308-313
- Schott, N., Mündörfer, A., & Holfelder, B. (2023). Neighborhood Socio-Economic Status Influences Motor Performance and Inhibitory Control in Kindergarten Children—Findings from the Cross-Sectional Kitafit Study. Children, 10(8), 1332. https://doi.org/10.3390/children10081332
- Scott, M. M., Evenson, K. R., Cohen, D. A., & Cox, C. E. (2007a). Comparing Perceived and Objectively Measured Access to Recreational Facilities as Predictors of Physical Activity in Adolescent Girls. Journal of Urban Health, 84(3), 346–359. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11524-007-9179-1
- Scott, M. M., Evenson, K. R., Cohen, D. A., & Cox, C. E. (2007b). Comparing Perceived and Objectively Measured Access to Recreational Facilities as Predictors of Physical Activity in Adolescent Girls. Journal of Urban Health, 84(3), 346–359. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11524-007-9179-1
- Stephani, M. R., Sumarno, G., & Wibowo, R. (2019). Early Childhood Motor Development and Parent Socio-economic Status. JURNAL PENDIDIKAN JASMANI DAN OLAHRAGA, 4(1). https://doi.org/10.17509/jpjo.v4i1.14466
- Stodden, D. F., Goodway, J. D., Langendorfer, S. J., Roberton, M. A., Rudisill, M. E., Garcia, C., & Garcia, L. E. (2008). A Developmental Perspective on the Role of Motor Skill Competence in Physical Activity: An Emergent Relationship. Quest, 60(2), 290–306. https://doi.org/10.1080/00336297.2008.10483582
- Sui, Y., Cui, L., Jia, B., Ding, X., He, M., Da, Y., Shi, Y., Li, F., & Li, P. (2024). Correlation Between Gross Motor Coordination And Basic Coordination Capacities In Normal-Weight And Overweight/Obese Children Aged 9–10 Years. PeerJ, 12, e17865. https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.17865
- Taufik, T., Winarno, M. E., Hariadi, I., Yudasmara, D. S., Fadhli, N. R., & Setiabudi, N. (2024). Exploring the validity and reliability of Active Motor Card: A Comprehensive Assessment of Gross Motor Development and Physical Fitness in Children Aged 6-9 Years. Retos, 54(2017), 100–105. https://doi.org/10.47197/RETOS.V54.102813
- Temple, V. A., Lefebvre, D. L., Field, S. C., Crane, J. R., Smith, B., & Naylor, P.-J. (2019). Object Control Skills Mediate the Relationship Between Neighborhood Vulnerability and Participation in Physical Activities. Journal of Motor Learning and Development, 7(1), 49–63. https://doi.org/10.1123/jmld.2017-0046
- Thomas, J. R., & Nelson, J. K. (1996). Research Methods in Physical Activity. Human Kinetics.
- Ushtelenca, K., Pano, G., Lile, A., & Kushta, E. (2024a). Impact of Physical Education Classes on Gross Motor Skills in Elementary School Children. International Journal of Human Movement and Sports Sciences, 12(3), 531–537. https://doi.org/10.13189/saj.2024.120309
- Ushtelenca, K., Pano, G., Lile, A., & Kushta, E. (2024b). Impact of Physical Education Classes on Gross Motor Skills in Elementary School Children. International Journal of Human Movement and Sports Sciences, 12(3), 531–537. https://doi.org/10.13189/saj.2024.120309
- Venetsanou, F., & Kambas, A. (2010). Environmental Factors Affecting Preschoolers’ Motor Development. Early Childhood Education Journal, 37(4), 319–327. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10643-009-0350-z
- Yoda, I. K., Festiawan, R., Ihsan, N., & Okilanda, A. (2024). Effectiveness of motor learning model based on local wisdom in improving fundamental skills. Retos, 57, 881–886. https://doi.org/10.47197/retos.v57.106807
References
Adkins, M. M., Bice, M. R., Dinkel, D., & Rech, J. P. (2017a). Leveling the Playing Field: Assessment of Gross Motor Skills in Low Socioeconomic Children to their Higher Socioeconomic Counterparts. International Journal of Kinesiology and Sports Science, 5(3), 28. https://doi.org/10.7575/aiac.ijkss.v.5n.3p.28
Adkins, M. M., Bice, M. R., Dinkel, D., & Rech, J. P. (2017b). Leveling the Playing Field: Assessment of Gross Motor Skills in Low Socioeconomic Children to their Higher Socioeconomic Counterparts. International Journal of Kinesiology and Sports Science, 5(3), 28. https://doi.org/10.7575/aiac.ijkss.v.5n.3p.28
Adolph, K. E., & Hoch, J. E. (2020). The Importance of Motor Skills for Development (pp. 136–144). https://doi.org/10.1159/000511511
Agafonov, S., Chub, S., & Trufanova, S. (2021). Actual Problems Of Physical Development Of Children In The Age Of Digital Technologies. E3S Web of Conferences, 273, 09034. https://doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202127309034
Akpınar, A., & Cankurt, M. (2015). Parental influence on children’s physical activity in urban green spaces. İstanbul Üniversitesi Orman Fakültesi Dergisi, 66(2). https://doi.org/10.17099/jffiu.38834
Andli Marta, I., Oktarifaldi, O., Hachi, I., Wisma, N., Rosalina, V., S, W., Nopembri, S., Erhan Orhan, B., Kurnaz, M., & Bin Shahril, M. I. (2024). Characteristics Of Gross Motor Skills Of Elementary School Students Aged 7 And 8 Years: A Cross-Sectional Study. Retos, 59, 537–546. https://doi.org/10.47197/retos.v59.107293
Asyura, I., Supriadi, I., Jannah, R., Maarif, M., Linda, L., Munawar, B., & Kamali, A. S. (2023). Pelatihan Permainan Tradisional Sunda Manda Sebagai Media Etnomatematika Dan Motorik AUD. JURNAL PENGABDIAN KEPADA MASYARAKAT, 78–85. https://doi.org/10.30999/jpkm.v13i3.2840
Ball, K., Jeffery, R. W., Crawford, D. A., Roberts, R. J., Salmon, J., & Timperio, A. F. (2008). Mismatch between perceived and objective measures of physical activity environments. Preventive Medicine, 47(3), 294–298. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ypmed.2008.05.001
Barnett, L., Hinkley, T., Okely, A. D., & Salmon, J. (2013). Child, family and environmental correlates of children’s motor skill proficiency. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, 16(4). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsams.2012.08.011
Haywood, K., & Getchell, N. (2024). Life Span Motor Development. Human Kinetics.
Ishee, J. H., & Hoffman, J. (2003a). The Influence of Motor Skill Interventions on Disadvantaged Children. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance, 74(8), 14–14. https://doi.org/10.1080/07303084.2003.10608494
Ishee, J. H., & Hoffman, J. (2003b). The Influence of Motor Skill Interventions on Disadvantaged Children. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance, 74(8), 14–14. https://doi.org/10.1080/07303084.2003.10608494
Jacqueline D. Goodway, John C. Ozmun, and D. L. G. (2017). Motor Development in Young Children. Handbook of research on the education of young children.
Jiménez-Pavón, D., Fernández-Alvira, J. M., te Velde, S. J., Brug, J., Bere, E., Jan, N., Kovacs, E., Androutsos, O., Manios, Y., De Bourdeaudhuij, I., & Moreno, L. A. (2012). Associations of parental education and parental physical activity (PA) with children’s PA: The ENERGY cross‐sectional study. Preventive Medicine, 55(4), 310–314. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ypmed.2012.07.011
Kellstedt, D. K., Schenkelberg, M. A., Essay, A. M., Von Seggern, M. J., Rosenkranz, R. R., Welk, G. J., High, R., & Dzewaltowski, D. A. (2021). Youth Sport Participation And Physical Activity In Rural Communities. Archives of Public Health, 79(1), 46. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13690-021-00570-y
Klein, M., Fröhlich, M., Pieter, A., & Emrich, E. (2016). Socio-economic status and motor performance of children and adolescents. European Journal of Sport Science, 16(2), 229–236. https://doi.org/10.1080/17461391.2014.1001876
Kwon, S., & O’Neill, M. (2020). Socioeconomic and Familial Factors Associated with Gross Motor Skills among US Children Aged 3–5 Years: The 2012 NHANES National Youth Fitness Survey. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(12), 4491. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17124491
Laguna Celia, A., Ornelas Contreras, M., González Rivas, R. A., & Nuñez Enriquez, O. (2023). Impacto del nivel socioeconómico en habilidades motrices de infantes: revisión sistemática (Impact of the socioeconomic status in children motor abilities: systematic review). Retos, 49, 307–313. https://doi.org/10.47197/retos.v49.97531
Leonard, H. C. (2016). The Impact of Poor Motor Skills on Perceptual, Social and Cognitive Development: The Case of Developmental Coordination Disorder. Frontiers in Psychology, 7. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00311
Li, S., Sun, J., & Dong, J. (2022). Family Socio-Economic Status and Children’s Play Behaviors: The Mediating Role of Home Environment. Children, 9(9), 1385. https://doi.org/10.3390/children9091385
Maddison, R., Hoorn, S., Jiang, Y., Mhurchu, C., Exeter, D., Dorey, E., Bullen, C., Utter, J., Schaaf, D., & Turley, M. (2009). The Environment And Physical Activity: The Influence Of Psychosocial, Perceived And Built Environmental Factors. International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 6(1), 19. https://doi.org/10.1186/1479-5868-6-19
Malina, R. M., Bouchard, C., & Bar-Or, O. (2004). Growth, Maturation, and Physical Activity. Human Kinetics. https://doi.org/10.5040/9781492596837
Mota, J., Santos, R., Pereira, M., Teixeira, L., & Santos, M. P. (2011). Perceived Neighbourhood Environmental Characteristics And Physical Activity According To Socioeconomic Status In Adolescent Girls. Annals of Human Biology, 38(1), 1–6. https://doi.org/10.3109/03014460.2010.486769
Ms Sumandeep Kaur, & Kaur Randhawa, D. R. (2022). Socioeconomic Status of Family And Availability of Home Affordances for Motor Development. International Journal of Life Science and Pharma Research. https://doi.org/10.22376/ijpbs/lpr.2022.12.1.L214-220
Muhammad nasihul waffak, Ervin Arifianti, & Rini Agustiningsih. (2024). Development of an Outdoor Play-Based Learning Model to Train Gross Motor Skills in Early Childhood. Kinestetik : Jurnal Ilmiah Pendidikan Jasmani, 8(2), 275–281. https://doi.org/10.33369/jk.v8i2.34338
Newell, K. M. (1986). Constraints on the Development of Coordination. In Motor Development in Children: Aspects of Coordination and Control (pp. 341–360). Springer Netherlands. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-009-4460-2_19
Pate, R. R., & O’Neill, J. R. (2012). Physical Activity Guidelines for Young Children. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine, 166(12), 1095. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpediatrics.2012.1458
Prins, R. G., Oenema, A., van der Horst, K., & Brug, J. (2009). Objective and perceived availability of physical activity opportunities: differences in associations with physical activity behavior among urban adolescents. International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 6(1), 70. https://doi.org/10.1186/1479-5868-6-70
Robinson, L. E., Stodden, D. F., Barnett, L. M., Lopes, V. P., Logan, S. W., Rodrigues, L. P., & D’Hondt, E. (2015). Motor Competence and its Effect on Positive Developmental Trajectories of Health. Sports Medicine, 45(9), 1273–1284. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-015-0351-6
Rocha Neto, L. J. da, Alvim Costa, M. I., Bragança Barros, I. de C. S., Bolina Batista, F. R. G., & Mandacaru, G. P. (2023). Prolonged use of Screens in Children and their Harm. Global Journal of Medical Research, 49–50. https://doi.org/10.34257/GJMRKVOL23IS6PG49
Ruijsbroek, A., Wijga, A. H., Kerkhof, M., Koppelman, G. H., Smit, H. A., & Droomers, M. (2011). The development of socio-economic health differences in childhood: results of the Dutch longitudinal PIAMA birth cohort. BMC Public Health, 11(1), 225. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-11-225
Saldan, I. P., Pashkov, A. P., & Zhukova, O. V. (2019). Comparative Analysis Of The Physical Development Of Schoolchildren Of 7-10 Years In Urban And Rural Areas. Hygiene and Sanitation, 98(3), 308–313. https://doi.org/10.18821/0016-9900-2019-98-3-308-313
Schott, N., Mündörfer, A., & Holfelder, B. (2023). Neighborhood Socio-Economic Status Influences Motor Performance and Inhibitory Control in Kindergarten Children—Findings from the Cross-Sectional Kitafit Study. Children, 10(8), 1332. https://doi.org/10.3390/children10081332
Scott, M. M., Evenson, K. R., Cohen, D. A., & Cox, C. E. (2007a). Comparing Perceived and Objectively Measured Access to Recreational Facilities as Predictors of Physical Activity in Adolescent Girls. Journal of Urban Health, 84(3), 346–359. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11524-007-9179-1
Scott, M. M., Evenson, K. R., Cohen, D. A., & Cox, C. E. (2007b). Comparing Perceived and Objectively Measured Access to Recreational Facilities as Predictors of Physical Activity in Adolescent Girls. Journal of Urban Health, 84(3), 346–359. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11524-007-9179-1
Stephani, M. R., Sumarno, G., & Wibowo, R. (2019). Early Childhood Motor Development and Parent Socio-economic Status. JURNAL PENDIDIKAN JASMANI DAN OLAHRAGA, 4(1). https://doi.org/10.17509/jpjo.v4i1.14466
Stodden, D. F., Goodway, J. D., Langendorfer, S. J., Roberton, M. A., Rudisill, M. E., Garcia, C., & Garcia, L. E. (2008). A Developmental Perspective on the Role of Motor Skill Competence in Physical Activity: An Emergent Relationship. Quest, 60(2), 290–306. https://doi.org/10.1080/00336297.2008.10483582
Sui, Y., Cui, L., Jia, B., Ding, X., He, M., Da, Y., Shi, Y., Li, F., & Li, P. (2024). Correlation Between Gross Motor Coordination And Basic Coordination Capacities In Normal-Weight And Overweight/Obese Children Aged 9–10 Years. PeerJ, 12, e17865. https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.17865
Taufik, T., Winarno, M. E., Hariadi, I., Yudasmara, D. S., Fadhli, N. R., & Setiabudi, N. (2024). Exploring the validity and reliability of Active Motor Card: A Comprehensive Assessment of Gross Motor Development and Physical Fitness in Children Aged 6-9 Years. Retos, 54(2017), 100–105. https://doi.org/10.47197/RETOS.V54.102813
Temple, V. A., Lefebvre, D. L., Field, S. C., Crane, J. R., Smith, B., & Naylor, P.-J. (2019). Object Control Skills Mediate the Relationship Between Neighborhood Vulnerability and Participation in Physical Activities. Journal of Motor Learning and Development, 7(1), 49–63. https://doi.org/10.1123/jmld.2017-0046
Thomas, J. R., & Nelson, J. K. (1996). Research Methods in Physical Activity. Human Kinetics.
Ushtelenca, K., Pano, G., Lile, A., & Kushta, E. (2024a). Impact of Physical Education Classes on Gross Motor Skills in Elementary School Children. International Journal of Human Movement and Sports Sciences, 12(3), 531–537. https://doi.org/10.13189/saj.2024.120309
Ushtelenca, K., Pano, G., Lile, A., & Kushta, E. (2024b). Impact of Physical Education Classes on Gross Motor Skills in Elementary School Children. International Journal of Human Movement and Sports Sciences, 12(3), 531–537. https://doi.org/10.13189/saj.2024.120309
Venetsanou, F., & Kambas, A. (2010). Environmental Factors Affecting Preschoolers’ Motor Development. Early Childhood Education Journal, 37(4), 319–327. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10643-009-0350-z
Yoda, I. K., Festiawan, R., Ihsan, N., & Okilanda, A. (2024). Effectiveness of motor learning model based on local wisdom in improving fundamental skills. Retos, 57, 881–886. https://doi.org/10.47197/retos.v57.106807